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general
Meter is a way of counting language in time.The syllable is one of the basic units of counting. It consists of at least a nucleus (what most people call “vowels”) and usually some stuff on either side of the nucleus (what most people call “consonants”). The stuff before the nucleus (on the left side, if your script runs left-to-right) is called the onset and the stuff after it is called the coda.
Languages parse sounds into syllables in slightly different ways, but here are some basic principles:
- Maximize onsets: put consonants into the onset of a syllable if you can, not into the coda of a preceding syllable. VCV is V.CV, not VC.V)
- Sonority sequencing: sounds should become more sonorous as you go from either margin to the nucleus (stop consonants < fricatives < nasals < liquids < semivowels < vowels).
- Short vowels (V) contribute one mora.
- Long vowels (V) contribute two moras.
- Diphthongs (which are usually biphonemic VC sequences) contribute two moras.
- Coda consonants contribute one mora.
- Onset consonants contribute nothing.
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sanskrit
Sanskrit meters are generally divided into two classes, vṛtta (syllable-counting meters) and jāti (mora-counting meters).
Vṛtta
Vṛttas are based on the alternation of light and heavy syllables. They are usually defined through trikas, or alphabetic symbols that represent a particular sequence of three syllable. Piṅgala's set of trikas is the one in most common use. In the following mnemonic, each letter represents the trika-pattern constituted by itself and the following two letters:
यमाताराजभानसलगाः
In most Indic texts, a light syllable is represented with a straight line (।) and a heavy syllable is represented with a curved like (ऽ). There is no symbol in common use for "indifferent" syllables or ancipitia.| य | मा | ता | रा | ज | भा | न | स | ल | गा |
| ।ऽऽ | ऽऽऽ | ऽऽ। | ऽ।ऽ | ।ऽ। | ऽ।। | ।।। | ।।ऽ | । | ऽ |
The following meters were recited by Vidvan H. V. Nagaraja Rao (Mysore) and recorded by Gil Ben Herut. The definitions, transcriptions, and translations are based on handouts that Blake Wentworth supplied to his Intermediate Sanskrit class at Madison in 2007.
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Śloka
Definition: In every pāda, the fifth syllable is light and the sixth is heavy. In the second and fourth pādas, the seventh is short and the others are long.श्लोके षष्ठं गुरु ज्ञेयं सर्वत्र लघु पञ्चमम् ।
द्विचटुष्पादयोर्ह्रस्वं सप्तमं दीर्घमन्ययोः ॥
Example: Raghuvaṃśa 1.1-2:
वागर्थाविव संपृक्तौ वागर्थप्रतिपत्तये ।
जगतः पितरौ वन्दे पार्वतीपरमेश्वरौ ॥
क्व सूर्यप्रभवो वंशः क्व चाल्पविषया मतिः ।
तितीर्षुर्दुस्तरं मोहादुडुपेनास्मि सागरम् ॥
I revere Pārvatī and the Supreme Lord, parents of the world,
like a word and its meaning, bound together,
for the meaning of my words to be understood.
So much lies between the lineage that arose from the sun
and a mind whose range is trifling
It is from folly that I want to cross a forbidding ocean
using a little raft.
like a word and its meaning, bound together,
for the meaning of my words to be understood.
So much lies between the lineage that arose from the sun
and a mind whose range is trifling
It is from folly that I want to cross a forbidding ocean
using a little raft.
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Upajāti
Definition: Technically an upajāti is any verse-form comprised of pādas of two related patterns. It almost always refers to the free combination of indravajrā (ज त ज ग ग, 5/6) and upendravajrā (त त ज ग ग, 5/6) pādas, both of which belong to the त्रिष्टुप् class (11 syllables per pāda).Piṅgala:
इन्द्रवज्रा तौ ज्गौ ग् ॥ ६-१६ ॥ (Indravajrā = ऽऽ।ऽऽ।।ऽ।ऽऽ)
उपेन्द्रजव्रा ज्तौ ज्गौ ग् ॥ ६-१७ ॥ (Upendravajrā = ।ऽ।ऽऽ।।ऽ।ऽऽ)
आद्यान्तौ उपजातयः ॥ ६-१८ ॥ (Upajāti is a combination of pādas of the former and latter.)
Jayadeva:
तौ ज्गौ गुरुश्चेद्भवतीन्द्रवज्रा ॥ ६-१६ ॥
उपेन्द्रवज्रा तु जतौ जगौ गः ॥ ६-१७ ॥
अनन्तरापादितलक्ष्मीशोभौ पादौ भवेतां विविधैर्विकल्पैः ।
यासामिमौ श्रव्ययतिप्रपञ्चौ स्मृताः स्मृतीशैरुपजातयस्ताः ॥ ६-१८ ॥
(The masters of tradition call Upajāti those meters in which two pādas possess the beauty of one of the aforementioned definitions, and in which the required word-break occurs, through a variety of options.)
Hemacandra:
तौ जो गाविन्द्रवज्राः ॥ २-१५४ ॥
जतजा गावुपेन्द्रवज्राः ॥ २-१५५ ॥
एतयोः परयोश्च सङ्कर उपजातिश्चतुर्दशधा ॥ २-१५६ ॥
(A combination of these two preceding is Upajāti, of which there are fourteen kinds.)
स्यादिन्द्रवज्रा यदि तौ जगौ गः ।
उपेन्द्रवज्रा प्रथमे लघौ सा ।
Example: Raghuvaṃśa 2.1-2, 2.11
अथ प्रजानामधिपः प्रभात जायाप्रतिग्राहितगन्धमाल्याम् ।
वनाय पीतप्रतिबद्धवत्सां यशोधनो धेनुमृषेर्मुमोच ॥
तस्याः खुरन्यासपवित्रपांसुमपांसुलानां धुरि कीर्तिनीया ।
मार्गं मनुष्येश्वरधर्मपत्नी श्रुतेरिवार्थं स्मृतिरन्वगच्छत् ॥
धनुर्भृतोऽप्यस्य दयार्द्रभावमाख्यातमन्तःकरणैर्विशङ्कैः ।
विलोकयन्त्यो वपुरापुरक्ष्णां प्रकामविस्तारफलं हरिण्यः ॥
The lord of the people, whose wealth is his fame,
released the sage’s cow to the forest at dawn,
her calf safely tied up after nursing, bearing fragrant garlands offered by his wife.
The lawful wife of the lord of men, celebrated as the best of pure women,
followed her path, where the dust was purified by the marks of her hooves,
like Vedic knowledge follows the meaning of Vedic words.
Even though he wields a bow,
his kind-heartedness and compassion are revealed by trusting hearts;
As a result, the deer looking at his body revealed their eyes’ great breadth.
released the sage’s cow to the forest at dawn,
her calf safely tied up after nursing, bearing fragrant garlands offered by his wife.
The lawful wife of the lord of men, celebrated as the best of pure women,
followed her path, where the dust was purified by the marks of her hooves,
like Vedic knowledge follows the meaning of Vedic words.
Even though he wields a bow,
his kind-heartedness and compassion are revealed by trusting hearts;
As a result, the deer looking at his body revealed their eyes’ great breadth.
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Vasantatilaka
Definition: शक्वरी (14 syllables per pāda), त भ ज ज ग ग, 8/6Piṅgala: वसन्ततिलका त्भौ जौ गौ ॥ ७-७ ॥ (Vasantatilakā = ऽऽ।ऽ।।।ऽ।।ऽ।ऽऽ)
Hemacandra: त्भौ जौ गौ वसन्ततिलका ॥ २-२३१ ॥
Jayadeva: त्भौ जौ वसन्ततिलकं गुरुकद्वयं चेत् ॥ ७-७ ॥
Jayakīrti: प्राहुर्वसन्ततिलका तभजा जगौ गः ॥ ७-१६९ ॥
उक्ता वसन्ततिलका तभजा जगौ गः ।
Example: Uttararāmacarita 1.14, Veṅkaṭeśvarasuprabhāta.
कष्टो जनः कुलधनैरनुरञ्जनीयस्तन्नो यदुक्तमशिवं न हि तत्क्षमं त ।
नैसर्गिकी सुरभिणः कुसुमस्य सिद्धा मूर्ध्नि स्थितिर्न चरणैरवताडनानि ॥
The cruel world must be humored by those who treasure their family name;
the ill things that were said by me are thus not fair to you.
The natural place ordained for a fragrant blossom is on the forehead,
not the stampedes of many feet.
the ill things that were said by me are thus not fair to you.
The natural place ordained for a fragrant blossom is on the forehead,
not the stampedes of many feet.
योषागणेन वरदध्नि विमथ्यमाने घोषालयेषु दधिमन्थनतीव्रघोषाः ।
रोषात्कलिं विदधते ककुभश्च कुम्भाः शेषाद्रिशेखरविभो तव सुपप्रभातम् ॥
As curds are churned by groups of young women,
the loud sounds of churning milk arises in the hamlets,
The milkpots and the directions seem to quarrel out of anger,
Oh Lord atop the Śeṣādri Mountain, a beautiful morning to you!
the loud sounds of churning milk arises in the hamlets,
The milkpots and the directions seem to quarrel out of anger,
Oh Lord atop the Śeṣādri Mountain, a beautiful morning to you!
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Śārdūlavikrīḍita
Definition: अतिधृतिः (19 syllables per pāda), म स ज स त त ग, 12/7Piṅgala: शार्दूलविक्रीडितं म्सौ ज्सौ तौ गादित्यऋषयः ॥ ७-२९ ॥ (Śārdūlavikrīḍita = ऽऽऽ।।ऽ।ऽ।।।ऽ, ऽऽ।ऽऽ।ऽ with a word-break after twelve syllables.)
Jayadeva: म्सौ ज्सौ तौ गुरुकं सूर्यतुरगैः शार्दूलविक्रीडितम् ॥ ७-२१ ॥
Jayakīrti: भानूद्यद्यति मात्सजौ सततगाः शार्दूलविक्रीडितम् ॥ २-२२८ ॥
Hemacandra: अतिधृत्यां म्सौ ज्सौ तौ गः शार्दूलविक्रीडितं ठैः ॥ २-३२१ ॥ (In the atidhṛti class, Śārdūlavikrīḍita is ऽऽऽ।।ऽ।ऽ।।।ऽ, ऽऽ।ऽऽ।ऽ with a word-break after the twelfth syllable.)
सूर्याश्वैर्यदि मः सजौ सततगाः शार्दूलविक्रीडितम् ।
Example: Uttararāmacarita 1.39
अद्वैतं सुखदुःखयोरनुगतं सर्वास्ववस्थासु य-
द्विश्रामो हरदयस्य यत्र जरसा यस्मिन्न्हार्यो रसः ।
कालेनावरणात्ययात्परिते यत्स्नेहसारे स्थितं
भद्रं तस्य सुमानुषस्य कथमप्येकं हि तत्प्राप्यते ॥
How wonderful! This fortunate man somehow obtained the one thing that endures,
constant in pain or happiness, favorable in all situations,
where the heart takes shelter, its savor is not stripped away by age,
which after time has pulled away the veil matures into love.
constant in pain or happiness, favorable in all situations,
where the heart takes shelter, its savor is not stripped away by age,
which after time has pulled away the veil matures into love.
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Śikhariṇī
Definition: अत्यष्टिः (17 syllables per pāda), य म न स भ ल ग, 6/11Piṅgala: शिखरिणी यमौ न्सौ भ्लौ गृतुरुद्राः ॥ ७-२० ॥ (Śikhariṇī = ।ऽऽऽऽऽ, ।।।।।ऽऽ।।।ऽ with a word-break after six syllables.)
Jayadeva: यमौ न्सौ भ्लौ गन्ता रसहरविरामा शिखरिणी ॥ ७-१३ ॥
Jayakīrti: ऋतुच्छेदोऽत्यष्टौ यमनसभलाद्गः शिखरिणी ॥ २-२०९ ॥
Hemacandra: यम्नस्भल्गा शिखरिणी चैः ॥ २-२८६ ॥
रसै रुद्रैश्छिन्ना यमनसभला गः शिखरिणी ।
Example: Kirātārjunīya 18.47
असंहार्योत्साहं जयिनमुदयं प्राप्य तरसा
धुरं गुर्वीं वोढुं स्थितमनवसादाय जगतः ।
स्वधाम्ना लोकानां तमुपरि कृतस्थानममरा-
स्तपोलक्ष्म्या दीप्तं दिनकृतमिवोच्चैरुपजगुः ॥
Having quickly obtained victorious success,
That man of indomitable power stood forth to carry the heavy burden
so that the earth would not sink low.
Taking his place above the worlds through his innate power,
he blazed like the sun through the splendor of austerity
as the immortals praised him in uplifted song.
That man of indomitable power stood forth to carry the heavy burden
so that the earth would not sink low.
Taking his place above the worlds through his innate power,
he blazed like the sun through the splendor of austerity
as the immortals praised him in uplifted song.
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Mālinī
Definition: 15 syllables, न न म य य, 8/7Piṅgala: मालिनी नौ म्यौ यश्च ॥ ७-१३ ॥
ननमयययुतेयं मालिनी भोगिलोकैः ।
Example: Kirātārjunīya 18.46
अथ शशधरमौलेरभ्यनुज्ञामवाप्य त्रिदशपतिपुरोगाः पूर्णकामाय तस्मै ।
अवितथफलमाशीर्वादमारोपयन्ती विजयि विविधमस्त्रं लोकपाला वितेरुः ॥
Then, the guardians of the world, with Indra at their head,
having received assent from the god who wears the hare-marked moon as his crown,
gave various conquering weapons to the one whose desire was fulfilled,
proclaiming words of blessing, sure of success.
having received assent from the god who wears the hare-marked moon as his crown,
gave various conquering weapons to the one whose desire was fulfilled,
proclaiming words of blessing, sure of success.
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Mandākrāntā
Definition: 17 syllables, म भ न त त ग ग, 4/6/7Piṅgala: मन्दाक्रान्ता म्भौ न्तौ त्गौ ग् समुद्रर्तुस्वराः ॥ ७-१८ ॥
Ratnamañjūṣā: मन्दाक्रान्ता कृहये दी द् ॥ ६-३७ ॥ (mss read कृत-, दी)
Jayadeva: मन्दाक्रान्ता मभनततगा गः समुद्रर्तुलोकैः ॥ ७-१७ ॥
Hemacandra: मो भ्नौ तौ गौ मन्दाक्रान्ता घचैः ॥ २-२९० ॥
मन्दाक्रान्ताम्बुधिरसनहैर्मो भनौ तौ सयुग्मम् ।
Example: Meghadūta 1.1
कश्चित्कान्ताविरहगुरुणा स्वाधिकारात्प्रमत्तः
शापेनास्तङ्गमितमहिमा वर्षभोग्येण भर्तुः ।
यक्षश्चक्रे जनकतनयास्नानपुण्योदकेषु
स्निग्घच्छायातरुषु वसतिं रामगिर्याश्रमेषु ॥
A certain yakṣa, negligent in the performance of his duties,
was deprived of his power by his master’s curse,
which was to be endured for one year, hard because of separation from his beloved.
He took residence among the hermitages of Ramagiri,
where the trees give cool shade,
and the waters are purified by the baths of Janaka’s daughter.
was deprived of his power by his master’s curse,
which was to be endured for one year, hard because of separation from his beloved.
He took residence among the hermitages of Ramagiri,
where the trees give cool shade,
and the waters are purified by the baths of Janaka’s daughter.
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Jāti
Jātis are verse-forms that are regulated by moras instead of syllables. (Actually, they are regulated partly by prosodic feet—see the paper in the bibliography below—and hence there is some regulation on the level of the syllable as well.) These verse-forms require groups (gaṇas) of moras, usually four; unlike the trikas of the syllable-counting meters, which are simply analytic devices, the gaṇas of the mora-counting meters are real structural constituents of the meter.
Just like the syllable-counting meters regulate the alternation of light and heavy syllables, the principal jātis regulate the alternation of syncopated and unsyncopated gaṇas that each consist of four moras. A syncopated gaṇa begins a prosodic foot (i.e., usually a heavy syllable, or the first of two light syllables) on the second mora; an unsycopated gaṇa begins a prosodic foot on the first mora. The shape ।ऽ। is always syncopated; the shapes ऽ।।, ऽऽ, and ।।ऽ are always unsyncopated. The shape ।।।। is syncopated when a word begins from the second mora (= syllable); otherwise it counts as unsyncopated.
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Gāthā
The gāthā or āryā (the first is more common in Prakrit, the second in Sanskrit) has two lines. The first line is comprised of seven and a half gaṇas, i.e., seven gaṇas and a syllable at the end. (As in the vṛttas, the final syllable in a line always counts as heavy.) Syncopated gaṇas are not allowed in any of the odd positions (gaṇas 1, 3, 5, and 7). Unsyncopated gaṇas, however, are allowed in the even positions, except for gaṇa 6, which must be syncopated. The second line is like the first, except that gaṇa 6 must be a single light syllable. The first line therefore consists of 30 moras, and the second, 27.Example: Sattasaī 1
पसुवइणो रोसारुणपडिमासंकंतगोरिमुहअंदं ।
गहिअग्घपंकजं मिव संझासलिलंजलिं णमह ॥
Reverence to the water for the twilight ritual that Śiva holds in his hands, reflecting Gaurī's anger-flushed face as if it held a red lotus.
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Skandhaka
The skandhaka (also called āryāgītī in Sanskrit) is very similar to the gāthā. The two differences are: (1) the sixth gaṇa of the skandhaka's second line is four moras (and like that of the first line, it is syncopated); (2) the skandhaka has a full eighth gaṇa in both of its lines.
Example: Setubandha 1.1
णमह अवड्ढिअतुंगं अवसाइअवित्थअं अणोणअअगहिरं ।
अप्पलहुअपरिसण्हं अणाअपरमत्थपाअडं महुमहणं ॥
Reverence to the slayer of Madhu, who is exalted though none has raised him, extensive though none has stretched him out, deep though none has lowed him, subtle though not small, manifest though ultimately unknown.
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greek
elegaic couplet
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Bibliography
- Explanation of Sanskrit meters by Alois Payer
- Handout on Sanskrit meters from the Institute of Indology at Wichtrach
- Andrew Ollett. “Moraic Feet in Prakrit Metrics: A Constraint-Based Approach.” Transactions of the Philological Society 110:2 (2012), 241–282.
- Roland Steiner. “Die Lehre der Anuṣṭubh bei den indischen Metrikern.” In Suhṛllekhāḥ: Festgabe für Helmut Eimer, 227–248. Swisttal-Odendorf: Indica et Tibetica Verlag, 1996.
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